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Alkalinity-salinity-sustainability: Decadal groundwater trends and its impact on agricultural water quality in the Indian Peninsula

Panday, Durga Prasad, Kumari, Aanchal, and Kumar, Manish, 2025. Alkalinity-salinity-sustainability: Decadal groundwater trends and its impact on agricultural water quality in the Indian Peninsula. Science of the Total Environment, 978:179459, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179459.

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@ARTICLE{2025ScTEn.97879459P,
       author = {{Panday}, Durga Prasad and {Kumari}, Aanchal and {Kumar}, Manish},
        title = "{Alkalinity-salinity-sustainability: Decadal groundwater trends and its impact on agricultural water quality in the Indian Peninsula}",
      journal = {Science of the Total Environment},
     keywords = {Groundwater depletion, Salinity, Alkalinity, Agricultural sustainability, GRACE satellite, Irrigation indices},
         year = 2025,
        month = may,
       volume = {978},
          eid = {179459},
        pages = {179459},
     abstract = "{Groundwater degradation due to alkalinity and salinity threatens
        irrigation-dependent agriculture, particularly in the Indian
        Peninsula. Over-extraction, erratic monsoons, and intensive
        farming have worsened groundwater quality, impacting soil health
        and crop productivity. The study examines long-term (2002‑2022)
        spatio-temporal variations in pH, electrical conductivity (EC),
        and bicarbonate (HCO₃$^{‑}$) datasets, integrating them with
        Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)-derived
        groundwater anomalies and rainfall variability through the
        Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI)
        employing hierarchical clustering. It further compares these
        variations with irrigation indices assessing sodium (Na) hazards
        and water suitability to identify critical hotspots for water
        sustainability. From 2002 to 2022, groundwater in the Indian
        Peninsula has shifted towards neutral to slightly alkaline
        conditions, with declining alkalinity in previously high-
        alkaline regions (mid-Gangetic plains) and increasing salinity
        in arid zones. Rising EC, driven by irrigation return flows and
        groundwater over-extraction, alongside fluctuating HCO₃$^{‑}$
        levels, highlights the growing impact of agricultural and
        climatic stressors on water quality. From 2012 to 2022,
        groundwater levels (GWLs) declined sharply in mid-Gangetic
        plains due to over-extraction. The issue was further exacerbated
        by worsening drought conditions as revealed by SPEI. Increasing
        mineral undersaturation has led to rising fluoride (F$^{‑}$) and
        hardness issues, and deteriorating irrigation indices indicate
        worsening salinity and Na hazards. Expanding clusters of high-
        risk states underscore the need for targeted groundwater
        management strategies. Future research should explore adaptive
        irrigation practices and policy measures to mitigate groundwater
        quality decline and sustain agricultural productivity.}",
          doi = {10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179459},
       adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025ScTEn.97879459P},
      adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}

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